Prerequisite One: Miraculous Guidance

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Prerequisite One

Miraculous Guidance

Miraculous Moulding of Hearts

Every prophet of Allah had guided and trained a band of followers, comprising of men who had given a new lease of life to our world, making the existence of man more meaningful. Among the accomplishments of these Ambiyaʼ, those of Nabi Muhammad salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam stand out as the most luminous and surpass all others. His achievements in this regard, preserved by historians in much greater detail, show that his success was not only more than a match for earlier Ambiyaʼ, but that he had to start his work in circumstances more adverse than anybody else. He undertook the task of character building among a people who were as profligate as beasts and raised them morally to a standard never achieved by any prophet. Thus, beginning his work from the lowest, he took it to the highest standard.

 

The Soul Shining through its Crystal Covering

Every man guided by the Nabi salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam was the shadow of the divine perfection, of whom the entire humanity can justly be proud. We do not find men with similar elegance and sublime character save among the Ambiyaʼ of Allah. Their unflinching faith, depth of knowledge, unsullied hearts, simplicity, self-abnegation, clemency, pious disposition, kindness to others, courage and valour, devotion to Allah, eagerness to lay down their lives for Him, vigils by night and engagements by day, indifference to the world and all it contains, probity and candidness, and their direction and management were unprecedented in world history. Every one of them would have been taken as mythical figures if verifiable records of history had not preserved their extraordinary achievements.

The Sahabah of the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam were a class by themselves; a group of men who had absorbed, through prophetic guidance, the highest qualities of head and heart ever aspired by man. Iqbal, the Poet of the East, has made an immortal verse of the acme of perfection which can be rephrased as under:

 

Child of earth and light, creature with divine traits,

His heart is indifferent to both the worlds, this and that.

Of hopes, he has little, but lofty in aims,

Winsome in his ways, his glance is sure to attract.

Courteous in speech, irresistible in effort,

Whether its war or peace he is pious, pure of heart.

His ways are strange, his exploits unsurpassed,

March ahead was his call to the times past.

Inspiring to the upward-looking, cup-bearer to the chaste,

His liquor is inebriate, truth is his sword.

 

Now, we shall present some historical evidence to prove that the Sahabah of the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam truly deserve the above eulogy.

 

The Khalifah Sayyidina ‘Aliʼs Testimony

We begin with two statements of the Khalifah Sayyidina ‘Ali radiya Llahu ‘anhu, whose testimony is based on his personal knowledge. He is reported to have made these observations after most of his comrades had already reached their journeyʼs end. His attestation does not relate to his four confidants (Salman al Farisi, Abu Dharr al Ghifari, Miqdad ibn al Aswad, and ‘Ammar ibn Yasir) who were alive when he was elected Khalifah^[1], but to all the departed Sahabah of the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam. These extracts are taken from Nahj al Balaghah, an authentic compilation of his sermons, letters, orders, and sayings according to the Shia. It was compiled by the noted Shia poet and man of letters, al Sharif al Radi (359-404 AH/970-1013 CE), and has been regarded highly ever since it came to be written. Another Shia scholar, Ibn Abi al Hadid (586-655 AH/1190-1257 CE) has written a detailed commentary of this work. The elegance, warmth, and vigour of Khalifah ‘Aliʼs radiya Llahu ‘anhu diction are apparent in these statements in all its intensity and colour.

 

لقد رأيت أصحاب محمد صلى الله عليه وسلم فما أرى أحدا يشبههم منكم لقد كانوا يصبحون شعثا غبرا وقد باتوا سجدا وقياما يراوحون بين جباههم وخدودهم ويقفون على مثل الجمر من ذكر معادهم كأن بين أعينهم ركب المعزى من طول سجودهم إذا ذكر الله هملت أعينهم حتى تبتل جيوبهم ومادوا كما يميد الشجر يوم الريح العاصف خوفا من العقاب ورجاء للثواب

Indeed, I have seen the Sahabah of Muhammad salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam. I do not see anyone amongst you who resembles them. They would rise in the morning, unkempt and covered with dust, because they had spent the night in prostration and standing. They would alternate between their foreheads and their cheeks, while it appeared as if they were standing on coals, reflecting on their eventual return to the Hereafter. Between their eyes (i.e., their foreheads) resembled the knees of goats due to their lengthy prostration. When they would remember Allah, their eyes would flow causing their bosoms to become wet. They would shake as a tree shakes on a terribly windy day, fearing punishment and hoping for reward.^[2]

 

In another sermon, says ‘Ali radiya Llahu ‘anhu:

 

أين القوم الذين دعوا إلى الإسلام فقبلوه وقرؤوا القرآن فأحكموه وهيجوا إلى القتال فولهوا وله اللقاح إلى أولادها وسلبوا السيوف أغمادها وأخذوا بأطراف الأرض زحفا زحفا وصفا صفا بعض هلك وبعض نجا لا يبشرون بالإحاء ولا يعزون بالموتى مره العيون من البكاء خمص البطون من الصيام ذبل الشفاه من الدعاء صفر الألوان من السهر على وجوههم غبرة الخاشعين

Where are the men who were invited to Islam and accepted it, who recited the Qurʼan and mastered it, who were provoked to fight and became mad with passion, like nursing camels upon their children. They unsheathed their swords and set out to the corners of the globe in battalions and ranks. Some embraced martyrdom while other survived. They were not elated with those alive nor did they mourn the dead. Eyes white from continuous crying, stomachs empty through constant fasting, lips dry owing to intense supplication, skin pale from wakefulness, with the dust of the fearful on their faces. Those are my brothers who have departed. It is befitting that we yearn for them and are remorseful over their separation.^[3]

 

Attestation by European Scholars

After this attestation by ‘Ali radiya Llahu ‘anhu, we would now cite a few European scholars in confirmation of his observation. Caetani writes in Annali dellʼ Islam:

 

These men were true moral heirs of the Prophet, the future apostles of Islam, the faithful trustees of all that Muhammad revealed unto the men of God. Unto these men, through their constant contact with the Prophet and their devotion to him, there had already entered a new mode of thought and feeling, loftier and more civilised than they had known any before; they had really changed for the better from every point of view, and later on as statesmen and generals, in this difficult moments of war and conquests they gave magnificent and undeniable proof that the ideas and doctrines of Muhammad had been seed cast on fruitful soil, and had produced a body of men of the highest worth. They were the depositories of the sacred text of the Qurʼan, which they alone knew by heart; they were the jealous guardians of the memory of every word and bidding of the Prophet, the trustees of the moral heritage of Muhammad. These men formed the venerable stock of Islam from whom one day was to spring the noble band of the first jurists, theologians, and traditions of Muslim society.^[4]

 

The noted French writer, Dr. Gustave Lebon, states about the Sahabah of the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam:

 

In short, the new religion came across many crucial moments and, there is the least doubt, that it was the sagacity of the Prophetʼs Companions which helped them to succeed on these occasions. They selected men for the Caliphate whose only object in mind was to propagate the religion of Muhammad.^[5]

 

About the first four Khalifas, the foremost Sahabah of the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam, Historian Edward Gibbon writes:

 

Any historian who balances the four Caliphs with a hand unshaken by superstition will calmly pronounce that their manners were alike, pure and exemplary; that their zeal was fervent, and probably sincere; and that, in the midst of riches and power, their lives were devoted to the practice of moral and religious duties.^[6]

 

A historian, taken as an authority on the history of Arabia, has the following to say about the first two Khalifas:

 

Abu Bakr (632-634), the conqueror and pacifier of Arabia, lived in patriarchal simplicity. In the first six months of his short reign, he travelled back and forth daily from al Sunh (where he lived in a modest household with his wife, Habibah) to his capital al Madinah, and received no stipend since the state had at that time hardly any income. All state business he transacted on the courtyard of the Prophetʼs Mosque… In character, he was endowed with much more strength and forcefulness than current traditions credit to him.

Simple and frugal in manner, his energetic and talented successor, ‘Umar (634-644), who was a towering height, strong physique and bald-headed, continued for some time after becoming caliph to support himself by trade and lived throughout his life in a style as unostentatious as that of a Bedouin sheikh… His irreproachable character became an exemplar for all conscientious successors to follow. He owned, we are told, one shirt and one mantle only, both conspicuous for their patch work, slept in the beds of palm leaves, and had no concern other than maintenance of the purity of the faith, the upholding of justice, and the ascendancy and the security of Islam and the Arabians.^[7]

 

Another European writer, by no means sympathetic to Islam, acknowledged the sterling qualities of these Sahabah of the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam. Writes William Muir:

 

At his court, Abu Bekr maintained the same simple and frugal life as Mahomet. Guards and servitors there were none, nor anything approaching the pomp and circumstance of state. He was diligent in business… Abu Bekr never spared himself, and many incidents are related of the manner in which he descended to the minutest thing. Thus, he would sally forth by night to seek the destitute or oppressed person… In the choice of his agents for high office or command, he was absolutely free from nepotism or partiality and was wise and discerning in his estimate of character.^[8]

 

In regard to Khalifah ‘Umar radiya Llahu ‘anhu, William Muir says:

 

Simplicity and duty were his guiding principles. Impartiality and devotion characterised the discharge of his great office; and the responsibility so weighed upon him, that at times he would exclaim, “O that my mother had not borne me; would that I had been this stalk of grass, instead!” He was tender-hearted, and numberless acts of kindness are recorded, such as relieving the wants of the widow and fatherless.^[9]

 

He portrays the great achievements of ‘Umar radiya Llahu ‘anhu in this manner:

 

So died Omar, next to the Prophet the greatest in the kingdom of Islam; for it was all within these ten years, that by his wisdom, patience, and vigour, the dominion was achieved over Syria, Egypt, and Persia, which Islam has ever since maintained… Yet throughout his marvellous fortune, he never lost the equipoise of a wise and sober judgement, nor exalted himself above the frugal and familiar style of the Arab chief. “Where is the Caliph?” would the visitor from distant provinces inquire, as he looked around the court of the Great Mosque; and all the while the monarch sat in homely guise before him.^[10]

 

Testimony of a Shia Scholar

We shall not set forth the findings of any Sunni penman here in favour of the two Khalifas, but depend on a Shia scholar, Justice Syed Amir Ali^[11],who writes in The Spirit of Islam:

 

An examination of the political condition of the Muslims under the early Caliphs brings into view a popular government administered by an elective chief with limited powers. The prerogatives of the head of the State were confined to administrative and executive matters, such as the regulation of the police, control of the army, transaction of foreign affairs, disbursement of finances, etc. But he could never act in contravention of the recognised law… The law was the same for the poor as for the rich, for the man in power as for the labourer in the field.^[12]

 

He also says:

 

The stern devotion of the early Caliphs to the well-being of the people, and the austere simplicity of their lives, were in strict accordance with the example of the Master. They preached and prayed in the mosque like the Prophet, received in their homes the poor and the oppressed, and failed not to give a hearing to the meanest. Without cortege, without pomp or ceremony, they ruled the hearts of men by the force of their character.^[13]

 

Sayed Amir Ali has paid tribute, without any reservation, to the simple and frugal living, even-handed justice, and the service rendered to Islam by the first three Khalifas: Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, and Uthman radiya Llahu ‘anhum. The circumstances leading to the election of Abu Bakr radiya Llahu ‘anhu as the first successor of the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam has been described as follows by him:

 

Among the Arabs, the chieftaincy of a tribe is not hereditary but elective; the principle of universal suffrage is recognised in its extremist form, and all the members of the tribe have a voice in the election of their chief. The election is made on the basis of seniority among the surviving male members of the deceased chieftainʼs family. The old tribal custom was followed in the choice of a successor to the Prophet, for the urgency of the times admitted for no delay. Abu Bakr, who by virtue of his age and the position he had held at Mecca occupied a high place in the estimation of the Arabs, was hastily elected to the office of Khalifa (Caliph) or Vicegerent of the Prophet. He was recognised as a man of wisdom and moderation, and his election was accepted with their usual devotion to the faith by ‘Ali and the chief members of Mohammadʼs family.^[14]

 

The character of Abu Bakr radiya Llahu ‘anhu has been thus depicted by Amir Ali:

 

Like his Master, Abu Bakr was extremely simple in his habits; gentle but firm; he devoted all his energies to the administration of the new-born state and to the good of the people. He would sally forth by night to help the distressed and relieve the destitute.^[15]

 

The achievements of ‘Umar radiya Llahu ‘anhu as summed up by Amir Ali testify that:

 

The short government of Abu Bakr was too fully occupied with the labour of pacifying the desert tribes to afford time for any systematic regulation of the provinces. But with the reign of Omar—a truly great man—commenced that sleepless care for the welfare of the subject nations which characterised the early Muslim governments.^[16]

 

He also says:

 

Omarʼs accession to the Caliphate was of immense value to Islam. He was a man of strong moral fibre and a keen sense of justice, possessed of great energy and force of character.^[17]

 

The martyrdom of ‘Umar radiya Llahu ‘anhu, according to Amir Ali, was one of the greatest disasters suffered by Islam:

 

The death of Omar was a real calamity to Islam. Stern but just, far-sighted, thoroughly versed in the character of his people; he was specially fitted for the leadership of unruly Arabs. He held the helm with a strong hand and severely repressed the natural tendency to demoralisation among nomadic tribes and semi-civilised people when coming in contact with the luxury and vices of cities… Of simple habits, austere and frugal, always accessible to the meanest of his subjects, wandering about at night to inquire into the condition of the people without any guard or court—such was the greatest and most powerful ruler of the time.^[18]

 

Khalifah ‘Uthman ibn ‘Affan

History bears witness to the fact that purity of faith and patriarchal simplicity dominated the life of the third Khalifah, ‘Uthman radiya Llahu ‘anhu. He entertained guests with a sumptuous meal, but he himself took bread with vinegar.^[19] Very often, he fasted continuously for days together. He mostly attended to his necessities himself and never woke up any servant at night. “The night is theirs”, he used to say if he was asked to take their help.^[20]

‘Uthman radiya Llahu ‘anhu had a slave whom he had once pulled by the ear. After he had been elected to preside over the Caliphate, he asked the slave to avenge himself and insisted until the slave exacted the retribution. He even remarked on the occasion, “Satisfy yourself and take your vengeance in this world so that nothing remains for the Hereafter.”

‘Abdul Malik ibn Shaddad relates that he saw ‘Uthman radiya Llahu ‘anhu on the pulpit one Friday donning a coarse woollen sheet of Adan, hardly costing four or five dirhams.^[21]

Hasan al Basri once saw ‘Uthman radiya Llahu ‘anhu taking rest in the Masjid at noon. When he stood up, the marks made by the pebbles were visible on his body. Those present on the occasion wondered at the austere ways of the Khalifah.^[22]

So solicitous was he about the welfare of the people that he often enquired about the market rates of different commodities even after ascending the pulpit of the Masjid. Musa ibn Talhah relates that he saw the Khalifah sitting on the pulpit, while the iqamah was being recited, and he was enquiring from certain persons about their welfare and itinerary.^[23]

Nothing can illustrate his sincerity and self-abnegation more than the events dealing with his martyrdom. While the insurgents had besieged him in Madinah, he calmly bade the citizens to go back to their homes since he did not want to fight or allow the blood of any Muslim to be shed for him. He died, while reciting the Qurʼan, at the hands of the rebels but did not succumb to their demands of retiring from the Caliphate, a trust committed to his care by the Muslims. He stood fast to his post till his last breath for he deemed it a sacred office entrusted to him in accordance with the prediction of the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam.^[24]

“His chief merit lay in his piety,”^[25] says Amir Ali while William Muir observes that he had a “kindly nature which might have made him, in less troubling times, a favourite of the people.”^[26]

His state policy has been described thus by Levi della Vida in the Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam:

 

As Wellhausen pointed out and Caetani has expounded at length, ‘Uthman only followed and developed the policy of ‘Umar.^[27]

 

The twelve years ‘Uthman radiya Llahu ‘anhu held the helm, Islamic domination saw an unprecedented rapid expansion. Writes Amir Ali:

 

The incursions of the Turks in Transoxiana led to the conquest of Balkh. Similarly were Herat, Kabul, and Ghazni captured. The rising in Southern Persia led to the subjugation of Kerman and Sistan. In the settlement of the new acquisitions, the policy of Omar was followed. No sooner were these countries conquered, then effective measures were set on foot for the development of their material resources. Water-courses were dug, roads made, fruit-trees planted, and security given to trade by establishment of a regular police organisation. Byzantine inroads from the north led to an advance on the country now called Asia Minor, towards the Black Sea. In Africa, Tripoli and Barca, and in the Mediterranean Cyprus, were conquered. A large fleet sent by the Romans to reconquer Egypt was destroyed off Alexandria.^[28]

 

In short, the limits of the Islamic empire were extended from Sindh, in the East, to Spain, in the West. A powerful armada was organised, although the Arabs did not earlier possess a single ship.

The enlargement of the grand square of the Ka’bah, undertaken in 26 AH, was a great service to Islam by ‘Uthman radiya Llahu ‘anhu. The Masjid of the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam in Madinah was also enlarged and beautified in 29 AH. He also sent orders to build new Masjids in the conquered dominions and enlarge the existing ones. But still his greatest achievement was to secure the uniformity of the sacred Scripture for the sake of doing away with the differences in its recitation, and bringing the standard text into exclusive use throughout the far-flung Islamic dominions.^[29] It would be interesting to mention here that when ‘Ali found certain citizens in Kufah blaming his predecessor for the standardisation of the Qurʼanic recitation, he was filled with anger. “Silence!”, said ‘Ali radiya Llahu ‘anhu, “‘Uthman radiya Llahu ‘anhu acted as he did with the advice of the leading men amongst us; and if I had been ruler at the time, instead of him, I should myself have exactly done the same.”^[30]

 

Khalifah ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib

Nobody has ever disputed the angelical disposition of ‘Ali radiya Llahu ‘anhu except the Khawarij.^[31] We shall give here the reminiscences of Dirar ibn Damurah, a comrade of ‘Ali radiya Llahu ‘anhu, who described the character and temperament of ‘Ali radiya Llahu ‘anhu at the behest of Muawiyah radiya Llahu ‘anhu, who had been a long while at loggerheads with his predecessor. The picture of ‘Ali radiya Llahu ‘anhu portrayed by Dirar is really a graphic description of the chivalrous, human, forbearing, and self-sacrificing companion brought up under the guidance of the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam:

 

He looked askance at the world and its pleasures; the night and its darkness were more agreeable to him. By my troth, his eyes were more often filled with tears and appeared to be care-worn. He had the touch of conscience which often made him to reproach himself. He was happy to wear garments made of coarse cloth and partake coarse food, lived like a common man, and made no distinction between himself and others. Whenever we asked anything, he would reply; whenever we went to him, he would salute first; and whenever we invited him, he came ungrudgingly; but despite this nearness, his awe never permitted us to talk in his presence or join in his conversation. When he laughed, his teeth used to shine as hail stones. He respected the pious and loved the poor. More men of influence or authority could not hope to achieve any undeserved gain from him, nor did the weak ever give up hope of obtaining justice from him.

I declare to Allah that I have seen him often after the night fall, standing on the prayer-mat, holding his beard, weeping bitterly. I have heard him sobbing and lamenting, “O world, do you wish to entice me? Have you brought your charms for me? Away! Away with you! Go about your business and deceive somebody else. I have already divorced you thrice. O world! Your pleasure is transitory, your life is short, and your allurements are unreliable and dangerous. Alas! I have but little provisions; the voyage is long and the route is extremely perilous.^[32]

 

Puritanical Life of the Earlier Khalifas

The sincerity, piety, and nobility of the first four Khalifas are demonstrated by their abstinence from the wealth that flowed from the newly conquered lands of the former Persian and Byzantine empires to the metropolis of Islam. Unlike other ambitious conquerors, they did not lead a life of ease and sufficiency but preferred to pass their days as recluses—simple, austere, and frugal—like the great Master salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam. It would be rather more appropriate to say that they enjoyed greater contentment and peace of mind before they accepted the responsibility of presiding over the Islamic empire.

The way these Khalifas passed their days amidst power and prestige of the greatest empire of the time has made Edward Gibbon to concede that:

 

The courage of Abu Bakr, Omar, and Uthman had indeed been tried in the persecution and wars of the Prophet; and the personal assurance of paradise must have taught them to despise the pleasures and dangers of the present world. But they ascended the throne in a vulnerable and mature age, and esteemed the domestic cares of religion and justice, the most important duties of the sovereign… The austere and frugal measure of their lives was the effect of virtue or habit, and the pride of their simplicity insulted the vain magnificence of the kings of the earth.^[33]

 

None of them ever tried to pass on his heritage to his son or a member of his family; they kept their near and dear ones away from the strings of power and sometimes even bade the electorate not to choose them as their successors. Of what we know of human nature and the propensities and practices followed by the kings since times immemorial lead us to the conclusion that the Khalifas were absolutely sincere, free from human failings like self-indulgence, nepotism, or partiality, their sole purpose in holding the helm was to propagate the faith and strengthen the commonwealth committed to their care, and to save the nascent state against all internal and external dangers.

Had they been self-seeking, desirous of winning power and prestige, they would not have shunned the pomp and circumstance of a rapidly expanding state. Endowed with sovereign and absolute power, if they chose to maintain the simple and frugal life as the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam did, they could not be accused of insincerity by any man of understanding. These Khalifas were too shrewd to be deceived themselves and too honest to act the part of deceivers.

 

Integrity of Abu Bakr

We shall recount a few episodes relating to Abu Bakr and ‘Umar radiya Llahu ‘anhuma which will convince any man endowed with common sense to judge for himself the veracity of these saintly successors of the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam. The reputed historian Ibn Al Athir rahimahu Llah (1160-1233 CE/555-630 AH) relates an incident showing the conscientiousness of Abu Bakr radiya Llahu ‘anhu.

 

Once, his wife expressed the longing for some sweetmeats. When Abu Bakr radiya Llahu ‘anhu expressed his inability, she offered to save something from the daily expenses of the household. Abu Bakr radiya Llahu ‘anhu gave his consent. She saved, over a period, some money and asked Abu Bakr to get some sweetmeats. Abu Bakr radiya Llahu ‘anhu took the money but remarked, “This seems to be in excess of our needs,” and put it back in the treasury. He also cut down his stipend to that extent.^[34]

 

Hasan ibn ‘Ali radiya Llahu ‘anhu relates that, just before his death, Abu Bakr radiya Llahu ‘anhu said to his daughter, ‘Aisha radiya Llahu ‘anha, “The she-camel we had for milk, the pan in which we took meals, and the bedspread we used were given to me since I served the Muslims. Send them to ‘Umar radiya Llahu ‘anhu after I have passed away.” She sent all these things to ‘Umar radiya Llahu ‘anhu as she had been bidden. Thereupon, ‘Umar radiya Llahu ‘anhu remarked, “May Allah have mercy upon you, Abu Bakr. You have laid a heavy burden upon me.”^[35]

It is also related that, at first, Abu Bakr radiya Llahu ‘anhu continued to maintain himself by trade; but finding it interfering with the affairs of the state, he consented to forego his occupation and receive a yearly allowance of six-thousand dirhams for his household charges. His conscience troubled him for having taken even what he did by way of stipend from peopleʼs money; on his death-bed, therefore, he gave command that certain lands of his private property should be sold, and a sum equal to all that he had taken refunded to the public exchequer.^[36]

Another report relates that he commanded to refund eight-thousand dirhams, for he had only taken that sum for his sustenance. He was wrapped in the same clothes in which he died; for he said, “New clothes befit the living, but old the mouldering body.”^[37]

 

Khalifah ‘Umarʼs Journey to Syria

The pomp and show attending royal visits are too familiar to be recounted here. The man reigning over the most powerful empire in the sixth century CE had also an occasion to undertake a journey to Jerusalem for capitulation of that city in 16 AH/636 CE. After a siege of some duration, the patriarch sued for peace, but refused to surrender the place to any but the Khalifah in person. As Amir Ali says “‘Umar acceded to the request and, travelling with a single attendant, without escort and without any pomp and ceremony, arrived at Jabia.”^[38] We shall relate the subsequent part of the journey as narrated by William Muir from the original sources:

 

It was a memorable occasion, being the first progress of a Caliph beyond the limits of Arabia, Abu Obeida, Yazid, and Khalid, came from the north in state to welcome him. A brilliant cavalcade, robed in Syrian brocade, and mounted on steeds richly caparisoned, they rode forth as he approached. At the sight of all this finery, Omarʼs spirit was stirred within him. He stooped down, and, gathering a handful of gravel, flung it at the astonished chiefs. “Avaunt!” he cried; “Is it thus attired that ye come out to meet me? All changed thus in the space of two short years! Verily, had it been after two hundred, ye would have deserved to be degraded.”

… Dismissing the other generals to their respective commands, the Caliph, carrying with him Amru and Shorahbil, resumed the journey westward, and, crossing the Jordan below the Lake of Tiberias, proceeded thus to Jerusalem. They gave him a palfrey to ride on, which pranced with gingling bells after the fashion of Syria. He disliked the motion. “What aileth the animal?” he said; “I know not who hath taught thee this strange gait.” So he dismounted and rode upon his own horse again.^[39]

 

‘Umar radiya Llahu ‘anhu undertook another journey to Syria in 18 AH/639 CE. He asked ‘Ali radiya Llahu ‘anhu to deputise in his place in Madinah on this occasion.

 

His way lay through the Christian settlement of Ayla, at the head of the gulf of Acaba. The reception he met with here brings out well the simplicity of Omar, and his kindly feeling towards the Christians. He journeyed on a camel with small pomp or following; and as he was minded to enter the village unrecognised, he changed places with his servant.

“Where is the Ameer?” cried the eager crowds as they streamed forth from the villages to witness the Caliphʼs advent. “He is before you,” replied Omar, and he drove his camel on. So they hurried forward, thinking that the great Caliph was beyond, and left Omar to alight unobserved at the house of the bishop, with whom he lodged during the heat of the day. His coat, which had been rent upon the journey, he gave to his host to mend. This the bishop not only did, but had a garment made for him of a material lighter and more suited to the oppressive travel of the season. Omar, however, preferred to wear his own.^[40]

 

Khalifah ‘Ali and His Predecessors

‘Ali radiya Llahu ‘anhu always cooperated with his predecessors. As Amir Ali says the election of Abu Bakr radiya Llahu ‘anhu, on the demise of the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam was “accepted with their usual devotion to the faith by ‘Ali and the chief members of Mohammadʼs family.”^[41]

William Muir has mentioned the misunderstanding arising between Abu Bakr radiya Llahu ‘anhu and ‘Ali radiya Llahu ‘anhu on the question of inheritance of the Messengerʼs salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam personal property, but adds that the latter continued to frequent the Khalifahʼs court like the rest of the chief Sahabah and even performed the functions of chief judicial officer.^[42] He also says that the dispatches of Abu Bakr radiya Llahu ‘anhu were chiefly indicted by ‘Ali radiya Llahu ‘anhu.^[43]

In his introduction to Nahj al Balaghah, rendered into English for the Islamic Seminary, a World Shia Muslim Organisation, Askari Jafery has mentioned several instances of ‘Umar radiya Llahu ‘anhu seeking the advice of ‘Ali radiya Llahu ‘anhu and accepting them with gratitude. He says:

 

On the occasion of the invasion of Rome (Byzantine Empire), when Hazrath Omer sought his (Aliʼs) counsel as to the advisability of heading the army as the Commander-in-chief, he advised him to be at the helm and to send some experienced general as commander… Similarly, at the time of the invasion of Persia, he counselled the Caliph Omar not to leave the capital and to send somebody else.^[44]

 

The well-meaning counsels offered by ‘Ali radiya Llahu ‘anhu find confirmation in the sermons numbered 137 and 149 included in Nahj al Balaghah.^[45]

It has been mentioned elsewhere that ‘Umar radiya Llahu ‘anhu left ‘Ali radiya Llahu ‘anhu as his deputy in Madinah while he travelled to Syria in 18 AH. The sympathetic reflections of ‘Ali radiya Llahu ‘anhu on the death of Abu Bakr radiya Llahu ‘anhu and ‘Umar radiya Llahu ‘anhu have been preserved by historians, which speak volumes of his earnest grief at parting company with these venerable comrades.^[46]

‘Umar radiya Llahu ‘anhu nominated ‘Ali radiya Llahu ‘anhu as one of the members of the Council charged to elect his successor. The choice of the electorate fell upon ‘Uthman radiya Llahu ‘anhu and, with his usual patriotism and devotion to the faith, ‘Ali radiya Llahu ‘anhu gave his adherence to ‘Uthman radiya Llahu ‘anhu as soon as he was elected.^[47] When the rebels blockaded ‘Uthman radiya Llahu ‘anhu, which lasted several weeks, denying food and water to the aging Khalifah, ‘Ali radiya Llahu ‘anhu interposed and expostulated with the besiegers. Muir reports: “They were treating their Khalifah,” he (‘Ali) told them, “more cruelly than they would treat Greek or Persian captives in the field. Even infidels did not deny water to a thirsty enemy.”^[48] But as the insurgents were deaf to his entreaty, ‘Ali sent water and food to the Caliph during the siege and later deputed his sons and dependents to defend the Caliph.^[49]

When ‘Ali heard of the assassination of ‘Uthman, he hastened to the place and asked his son how it had happened.^[50] Death had not softened the rebelsʼ heart who pelted the litter of Caliph ‘Uthman with stones, but the funeral procession was bravely joined by Hasan along with the kinsmen of the departed Caliph.^[51]

 

Sahabah and the Ahlul Bayt

The Qurʼan explicitly says that the Sahabah of the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam are:

 

اَشِدَّآءُ عَلَی الْكُفَّارِ رُحَمَآءُ بَیْنَهُمْ

Forceful against the disbelievers, merciful among themselves.^[52]

 

The lives of the people who have had the opportunity of keeping company with the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam are a living illustration of this sententious expression. Their mutual love and compassion, their comradeship, and their willingness to undergo any sacrifice for their mates signify the truth of divine revelation about them. Amir Ali has rightly remarked:

 

The intense faith and conviction on the part of the immediate followers of Muhammad is the noblest testimony to his sincerity and his utter self-absorption in his appointed task.^[53]

 

Any allegation about the improbity of these elevated souls not only belies a historical fact, but also raises doubts about the truth of divine revelation and effectiveness of prophetic guidance. A report related by al Bukhari on the authority of ‘Uqbah ibn al Harith says:

 

Abu Bakr radiya Llahu ‘anhu performed Salat al ‘Asr and came out of the Masjid to take a stroll. He saw Hasan playing with other children. He lifted him up upon his shoulder and said, “May my father be sacrificed for him; he bears resemblance to the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam and not ‘Ali.” ‘Ali radiya Llahu ‘anhu heard the remark and smiled.^[54]

 

Hussain radiya Llahu ‘anhu narrates:

 

‘Umar once asked me why I do not go and sit with him. Later on, I went to his house, but nobody was allowed to go inside, and his son ‘Abdullah was waiting for him outside. I came back but when he met me next, he again said, “Son, you did not come to me?” I replied that I had gone to see him but he was in privy, since his son ‘Abdullah was waiting for his permission to see him. ‘Umar replied, “Never mind the permission for ‘Abdullah, you could have seen me. The faith we have was due to your household.” Thereafter, he lovingly patted me on the head.^[55]

 

Another report handed down by Zayn-al ‘Abidin ibn al Hussain rahimahu Llah through Muhammad al Baqir and Jafar al Sadiq rahimahuma Llah has been narrated by Ibn Sa’d. He says:

 

Once, ‘Umar received some hullahs^[56] from Yemen which were distributed by him among the people. Those who received the hullahs came wearing them to the Messengerʼs salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam Masjid while ‘Umar radiya Llahu ‘anhu was sitting half-way between the grave of the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam and the pulpit. The in-comers saluted him and he also greeted them. In the meantime, Hasan and Hussain radiya Llahu ‘anhuma happened to come out of their house (which was part of the Masjid) but none of them had a hullah on him. ‘Umar looked sad and depressed. When he was asked the reason for it, he replied that he had been saddened because of the two children, as there was no hullah of their size; all were for the grown-ups. ‘Umar then wrote to the governor of Yemen to send two hullahs for Hasan and Hussain radiya Llahu ‘anhuma and also make haste in complying with his orders. ‘Umar radiya Llahu ‘anhu was satisfied when these were received and he had both the children put them on.^[57]

 

‘Umar radiya Llahu ‘anhu regulated the allocation of stipends on a fixed and systematic scale. Shibli al No’mani has described the rule of precedence laid down by ‘Umar radiya Llahu ‘anhu. He writes:

 

‘Umar radiya Llahu ‘anhu had great regard for affinity to the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam. When he expressed the desire to fix the rates of stipend, ‘Abdur Rahman ibn ‘Awf radiya Llahu ‘anhu and a few others expressed their opinions that ‘Umar radiya Llahu ‘anhu should get precedence. However, ‘Umar disagreed with them and said that the affinity to the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam should be a criterion for priority. In such wise, he commenced with the Banu Hashim, and among them he began with ‘Abbas and ‘Ali radiya Llahu ‘anhuma at the top. He gave fifth place to his own tribe, the Banu ‘Adi. Thus, the names of stipendiaries were listed in that order. In the fixation of allowances too, he kept the same rule in view; those who had fought at Badr were allowed the highest allowance. Hasan and Hussain radiya Llahu ‘anhuma were exceptions for they were allocated the same amount (as those who fought at Badr) although they did not fall in that category.^[58]

 

‘Ali radiya Llahu ‘anhu was the chief counsellor of ‘Umar radiya Llahu ‘anhu whom he always took as the most sincere and well-meaning confidant. As stated elsewhere, when ‘Umar radiya Llahu ‘anhu declared his resolve to march forth in person to direct the Battle of Nahawand, it was ‘Ali radiya Llahu ‘anhu who dissuaded him from leaving Madinah. When ‘Umar radiya Llahu ‘anhu undertook the journey to Jerusalem, he asked ‘Ali radiya Llahu ‘anhu to act as his vicegerent. How dear ‘Ali radiya Llahu ‘anhu was to ‘Umar radiya Llahu ‘anhu can be gauged from the fact that the former gave his daughter Umm Kulthum, by his first wife Fatimah radiya Llahu ‘anha, in wedlock to ‘Umar radiya Llahu ‘anhu.^[59] He also gave the names of his predecessors—Abu Bakr, ‘Umar and ‘Uthman—to three of his sons.^[60]

 

Heavenly Social Order

The social order we find portrayed in the Qurʼan, Hadith, and reliable annals, which was groomed and brought up under the prophetic care, presents the most shining and sublime picture of a body of men: virtuous, just, clement, and noble, and who are not to be found even in a smaller number at any other time or anywhere else in the world. This, in itself, tends to show—on the one hand—the innate goodness of human nature, the heights to which man can raise his worthiness and the health of his soul and—on the other—the effective and lasting impact of the sincere, pure-hearted guide that the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam was.

Actually, these were the men of whom the entire humanity can be proud, for they were the men whom Iqbal describes as “children of earth and light, creatures with divine traits.” No man belonging to such society can ever develop an inferiority-complex, malevolence, or despondency. Rather, every member of such a social order becomes upward-looking, takes the Nabi of Islam as his ideal, and his faith in the realities, beyond the ken of human perception, turns into a living, veritable precept.

Al Imam Ibn Taymiyyah rahimahu Llah has very correctly assessed the distinguishing feature of these emblems of human virtues:

 

Notwithstanding the weakness which is natural to human beings, no group or clan, excepting the messengers of Allah, can, as a whole, be compared to the Sahabah of the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam. If one finds minor short-comings here and there, these are like faint marks on a white cloth. It is the faults of the cavaliers who see these stains only but not the tidiness of the cloth itself. Others compared to this group would be found to be wholly blemished with only a few white spots.^[61]

 

The Picture Painted by the Shia

An entirely different picture of these godly men is presented by a people claiming to be Muslims and swearing allegiance to the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam; these are the Imamiyyah or Ithna ‘Ashariyyah (Twelvers), whose depiction of the earliest Muslim society speaks of total failure of the prophetic guidance and training—a failure unparalleled in history. It signifies the collapse of the Messengerʼs salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam efforts, not experienced even by those guides and reformers who were not commissioned by Allah for this purpose nor enjoyed His succour and blessings.

Shia portrayal of the Sahabah presents them as self-seeking hypocrites, who could stoop to lies, intrigues, treachery, falsification of text, forgery, and betrayal for their worldly ends. Were this depiction true, nobody would endeavour to reform the morals and conduct of oneʼs fellow beings and would yield to despair with regard to the future of all human beings.

Only three persons remained, according to their version, truly wedded to the Islamic faith after the death of the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam, while the rest, who had been guided, groomed, and trained for twenty-three long years, recanted their faith. Were this to be correct, then nothing else would be needed to establish bankruptcy of the prophetic guidance.^[62]

An authentic religious treatise of the Shia, entitled al Jami’ al Kafi, contains the following statements of al Imam Abu Jafar (also known as al Baqir) in the last section given the caption of Kitab al Rawdah:

 

كان الناس على ردة بعد النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم إلا ثلاثة فقلت ومن الثلاثة فقال المقداد بن الأسود وأبو ذر الغفاري وسلمان الفارسي رحمة الله عليهم وبركاته

The people became apostates after the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam with the exception of three persons.

(The narrator) asked, “Who were those three?”

He said, “Miqdad ibn al Aswad, Abu Dharr al Ghifari, and Salman al Farisi; may Allah bless them and have mercy on them.”^[63]

 

Pronouncements of Ayatollah Khomeini

Leader of the present Iranian Revolution and founder of ʼIslamic Democracyʼ in his country, Ayatollah Khomeini, who is also regarded as the representative of the last al Imam al Ghaʼib (hidden or concealed Imam), seeks to set forth the Sahabah of the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam as worldly-minded persons, impious, insolent, and interpolators of the Qurʼan, who will not be deemed as believers. He writes in his Kashf al Asrar:

 

These persons (the Sahabah) had nothing to do with Islam and the Qurʼan, save to utilise these as the means for their worldly gains and holding the helm. For the persons who managed to employ the Qurʼan to sub-serve their baser objective, it posed no problem to delete the verses (declaring ‘Ali as the vicegerent of the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam and the principle of Imamah), to make interpolations in the divine Scripture, and to put the Qurʼan out of sight to the end of time. The charge of corrupting (the scriptures) laid by the Muslims against the Jews and the Christians is proven against these Companions.^[64]

 

He says elsewhere in the same book:

 

Suppose that the Imam had been mentioned by name in the Qurʼan, then how does it help us to conclude that there would have been no differences among the Muslims. Those who had leagued with the Messengerʼs salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam faith owing to their greed for power and position and were conspiring since long to enrol their supporters, would have never given up their ulterior ends because of the Qurʼanic injunctions. They would have adopted every device to achieve their objectives, or in that case the differences created would have been of such a nature that the very foundations of the religion would have been demolished. For the possibility was that if those who were after wielding the sceptre had realised that they would not achieve their ends through Islam, they would have joined hands to form a clique against Islam and openly defied it.^[65]

 

Ayatollah Khomeiniʼs Kashf al Asrar contains numerous derogatory remarks about the first three Khalifas and other Sahabah of the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam, too sacrilegious to be cited here. One can refer to the book or read Molana Manzur No’maniʼs Shi’iyyat Kya Hai, if anybody wants to know more about it.

 

Impressions of Muhsin al Mulk

I cannot do better than give the reactions of Muhsin al Mulk^[66], the author of Ayat Bayyinat, which reflects the burning reflections of the author who had found out the truth after a deep study of the subject. Every man endowed with common sense will reach the same conclusion if he dispassionately thinks about the matter.

 

The truth is that the belief entertained by the Shia about the Sahabah casts a doubt on Nubuwwah and makes one sceptical of Islam. If anybody comes to hold a view that all those who gave their faith to the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam were really disbelievers; they pretended to be Muslims but they were infidels, in their hearts of hearts; and they fell away as soon as the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam closed his eyes; cannot acknowledge his Nubuwwah. He can ask that if the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam was truly the messenger of Allah, his teachings would have surely impressed at least a few persons and made a dent in their hearts. Who believed in him out of more than a hundred-thousand persons swearing fealty to him? At least a few hundreds would have remained faithful to him! If the Sahabah were not perfect in faith, as you wrongly assert, then who are the persons on whom the teachings of the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam had left a lasting impression? How many were they who profited by his Nubuwwah? If, Allah forbid, all barring the few to be counted on oneʼs fingers were hypocrites and apostates, then who gave faith to Islam and who were those who derived any benefit from the teachings of the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam?^[67]

 

Observation of al Imam al Sha’bi

Al Imam al Sha’bi (d. 110 AH/728 CE) has made a trenchant remark on the attitude of the Shia. He says:

 

Jews and Christians are more well-disposed towards their Ambiyaʼ of Allah.

The Jews were asked, “Who were most virtuous amongst you?” They replied, “Those accompanying Musa ‘alayh al Salam.”

The Christians were similarly asked, “Who were the best in faith amongst you?” They replied, “The disciples of ‘Isa ‘alayh al Salam.”

But when the Shia were asked, “Who were the worst amongst you?” They gave the answer, “They were the Sahabah of the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam.”^[68]

 

Shia Presumption

It seems that the Shia of Iranian stock had assumed that the Sahabah of the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam were men of the same kidney as the greedy and selfish worldly-minded adventurers belonging to the Pahlavi, Kayanian, Safavid, and Qajar dynasties of their country. If it is correct that the forefathers of Ayatollah Khomeini had migrated from Oudh in India to Iran, then he must have taken the venerable Sahabah for those petty but scheming and litigant landed gentry of that region who were wont to go to any length for realisation of their petty interests. Verily Allah has already declared:

 

ذٰلِكَ مَبْلَغُهُمْ مِّنَ الْعِلْمِ ؕ  اِنَّ رَبَّكَ هُوَ اَعْلَمُ بِمَنْ ضَلَّ عَنْ سَبِیْلِهٖ وَهُوَ اَعْلَمُ بِمَنِ اهْتَدٰی

That is their sum of knowledge. Indeed, your Lord is most knowing of who strays from His way, and He is most knowing of who is guided.^[69]

 

 

NEXT⇒ Prerequisite Two: Ambiyaʼ Are Not Political Strategists

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^[1] ‘Ammar ibn Yasir radiya Llahu ‘anhu passed away in 37 AH and Salman al Farisi radiya Llahu ‘anhu in 36 AH, during the reign of ‘Ali radiya Llahu ‘anhu, who passed away in 40 AH.

^[2] Nahj al Balaghah, pg. 143.

^[3] Ibid., pg. 177-178.

^[4] Caetani: Annal dellʼ Islam, vol. 2 pg. 429; T.W Arnold: Preaching of Islam, pg. 41-42, London, 1935.

^[5] Translated from Urdu, Dr. S. ‘Ali Bilgrami: Tamaddun ‘Arab, pg. 134.

^[6] Edward Gibbon: The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. 5 pg. 384-385, London, 1911,

^[7] Philip K. Hitti: History of the Arabs, pg. 175-176, London, 1953.

^[8] Sir William Muir: Annals of the Early Caliphate, pg. 123, London, 1882.

^[9] Ibid., pg. 283-285.

^[10] Annals of the Early Caliphate, pg. 283.

^[11] Justice Sir Syed Amir Ali (1849-1928 CE) was a descendent of a Shia family which immigrated to India from Khurasan during the reign of Nadir Shah. He first received education of English, Law, and Arabic in the Hooghly Mohsin College, Calcutta, and then was called to Bar in England in 1873 CE. He retired in Bengal High Court in 1904 CE and took up residence in England. He was elected as the first Indian member of the Privy Councilʼs Law Committee in 1909 CE and died in 1928 CE. A few Indians can claim to have a command over the English language and as a facile a pen as Sayed Amir Ali. Major Osborn, the noted orientalist, once remarked that even Englishmen envied his easy and forceful diction.

^[12] The Spirit of Islam, pg. 278, London, 1922.

^[13] The Spirit of Islam, pg. 280.

^[14] Amir Ali: A Short History of the Saracens, pg. 21, London, 1955.

^[15] A Short History of the Saracens, pg. 26-27.

^[16] The Spirit of Islam, pg. 278.

^[17] A Short History of the Saracens, pg. 27.

^[18] Ibid., pg. 43-44.

^[19] Abu Nuaim: Hilyat al Awliyaʼ, vol. 1 pg. 60, on the authority of Shurahbil ibn Muslim, Lebanon, 1980.

^[20] Ibn Sa’d: Al Tabaqat, vol. 3 pg. 60.

^[21] Hilyat al Awliyaʼ, vol. 1 pg. 60.

^[22] Hilyat al Awliyaʼ, vol. 1 pg. 60,

^[23] Ibn Sa’d: Al Tabaqat, vol. 3 pg. 59.

^[24] Al Suyuti: Tarikh al Khulafaʼ, Maktabat al Sa’adah, Egypt, 1952; Ibn Kathir: Al Bidayah wa l-Nihayah, Matba’ al Ma’arif, 1966.

^[25] A Short History of the Saracens, pg. 48.

^[26] Annals of Early Caliphate, pg. 341

^[27] Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam, pg. 116.

^[28] A Short History of the Saracens, pg. 47.

^[29] Daʼirat al Ma’arif Islamiyyah, vol. 12, Lahore, 1973.

^[30] Annals of the Early Caliphate, pg. 308.

^[31] A section of ‘Aliʼs army which mutinied during the Battle of Siffin and withdrew to Nahrawan, on the borders of the desert, and assumed a threatening attitude.

^[32] Ibn al Jawzi: Sifat al Safwah, vol. 1 pg. 122, Daʼirat al Ma’arif, Hyderabad, 1355-1356 AH.

^[33] The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. 5 pg. 399.

^[34] Ibn al Athir: Al Kamil fi al Tarikh, vol. 2 pg. 423, Leyden, 1867-1874.

^[35] Jalal al Din al Suyuti: Tarikh al Khulafaʼ, pg. 78, Maktabat al Sa’adah, Egypt, 1952.

^[36] Annals of the Early Caliphate, pg. 120-122.

^[37] Ibid., pg. 119; Ibn Sa’d: Al Tabaqat, vol. 3 pg. 131, Beirut, 1968.

^[38] A Short History of the Saracens, pg. 39.

^[39] Annals of the Early Caliphate, pg. 207-208.

^[40] Annals of the Early Caliphate, pg. 236.

^[41] A Short History of the Saracens, pg. 21.

^[42] Annals of the Early Caliphate, pg. 65, 416.

^[43] Ibid., pg. 123.

^[44] Peak of Eloquence, pg. 57.

^[45] Ibid., pg. 260 and 270.

^[46] Muhibb al Din al Tabari (d. 694 AH/1295 CE): Al Riyad al Nadirah fi Fadaʼil al ‘Asharah, pg. 126-127, 187-188, MSS no. 1784, Nadwat al ‘Ulamaʼ Library.

^[47] A Short History of the Saracens, pg. 46.

^[48] Annals of the Early Caliphate, pg. 336.

^[49] Peak of Eloquence, pg. 61.

^[50] Annals of the Early Caliphate, pg. 341.

^[51] Ibid.

^[52] Surah al Fath: 29.

^[53] The Spirit of Islam, pg. 22.

^[54] Sahih al Bukhari, vol. 2 pg. 184, Matba’ Mustafa al Babi al Halabi, Egypt, 1953.

^[55] Husam al Din ‘Ali al Muttaqi: Kanz al ‘Ummal, vol. 7 pg. 105.

^[56] A shirt and overskirt made of the same but costly cloth. It was highly valued by the Arabs.

^[57] Kanz al ‘Ummal, vol. 7 pg. 105; Ibn Hajar: Al Isabah, vol. 1 pg. 333.

^[58] Shibli al No’mani: Al Faruq, vol. 2 pg. 269 (cited from Abu Yusuf: Kitab al Kharaj, pg. 24-25).

^[59] Annals of the Early Caliphate, pg. 276. For a detailed discussion on the controversy relating to it, see Ayat Bayyinat, vol. 1 pg. 127-162, Mirzapur, 1870.

^[60] ‘Abbas Mahmud al ‘Aqqad: ‘Abqariyyat al Imam, pg. 958, Dar al Futuh, Cairo, 1957.

^[61] Ibn Taymiyyah, Hafiz Ahmed Taqi al Din: Minhaj al Sunnah al Nabawiyyah, vol. 3 pg. 242, Cairo, 1321 AH.

^[62] It is hardly necessary to mention here how the seemly influence of Muhammadʼs salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam Nubuwwah produced countless miens as glittering gems. In different ages and places, such godly souls were born among the followers of the last Nabi salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam who were able to change the morals and behaviour of the sinners and criminals just by casting a glance at them. No sooner than the wicked and perverted people came to their contact, that their behaviour and morals were entirely changed and they became virtuous and Allah-fearing. There are instances when a dissolute man would happen to pass a night with them and he would become pure of heart by the dawn. This has happened even centuries after the era of the Messenger salla Llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam and in far-off lands like India. One can, for instance, go through Sayed Ahmed Shahid His Life and Mission (published by the Academy of Islamic Research and Publications) to know more about such paradigms of spiritual perfection.

^[63] Al Kafi, vol. 3 entitled Kitab al Rawdah, pg. 115, Lucknow. Another report includes ‘Ammar in the list of exceptions.

^[64] Kashf al Asrar, pg. 114.

^[65] Kashf al Asrar, pg. 113-114.

^[66] Sayed Mahdi ‘Ali (1253-1325 AH), son of Sayed Damin ‘Ali Hussaini, honoured with the title Nawab Muhsin al Mulk and Nawaz Jang, was an eminent leader and reformer. Highly educated and liberal in his attitude, he renounced the Shia creed to accept the faith of the Ahlus Sunnah. He took up service under the then Hyderabad state in 1291 AH, at the invitation of Nawab Mukhtar al Mulk and was responsible for making far-reaching reforms in the state administration. He went to England in 1305 AH/1786 CE and thenceforth became a close friend of Sayed Ahmed Khan. He was elected secretary of the Madrasat al ‘Ulum, Aligarh and Muslim Educational Conference in 1315 AH/1797 CE and held that office for the rest of his life. He was instrumental in progress of the college which eventually became a Muslim University. He had an impressive personality and was a prolific writer. Ayat Bayyinat, one of his creations, had immortal fame.

^[67] Ayat Bayyinat, vol. 1 pg. 6-7, Mirzapur, 1870.

^[68] Minhaj al Sunnah, vol. 1 pg. 6.

^[69] Surah al Najm: 30.